Ten years have passed since the first photograph featuring Prime Minister Narender Modi with a broom went viral. The picture received mixed reactions back then, with many criticising and many others appreciating the initiative. Many sources claimed that the leaves were deliberately strewn around for a photo opportunity to mark the launch of the Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) from Valmiki Basti in New Delhi.

The mission's logo featured a pair of Gandhi's glasses inscribed with the word 'Swachh' on one lens and 'Bharat' on the other, reducing him to a mere symbol of cleanliness rather than focusing on the defining aspects of his life, which revolved around communal unity and harmony, freedom from all kinds of oppression, policies directed towards the development of the poorest of the poor, and so on.

The campaign certainly attempted to make a historic push toward hygiene, sanitation, and cleanliness in India. Promising an end to open defecation and aspiring for a nationwide cleanliness revolution, the initiative drew significant attention globally. There was a sudden push toward the construction of toilets in every household and community, especially in the rural regions, to achieve the goal of an Open Defecation-Free (ODF) India by 2019.

The primary aim was to equip all households with individual toilets, provide communities with cluster toilets, and ensure that school and anganwadi toilets have waste management systems. Solid waste includes organic and inorganic materials (kitchen waste, plastics, metals, etc.), while liquid waste management deals with wastewater that no longer fits human consumption.

Consequently, the government's assistance of Rs 10,000 per toilet (under Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan launched by the UPA government) was increased to Rs 12,000 under SBM. After seven years, SBM 2.0 was launched in 2021, focusing on garbage-free cities, faecal sludge, plastic waste, and grey-water management.

Ever since its launch, the government has been publicising its achievements. By 2019, as per government figures, over ten crore toilets had been constructed, and six lakh villages had been declared ODF. Except for cities in West Bengal, all cities were also declared ODF. Over 66 lakh individual toilets were built against the target of 56 lakh. During the last three years since the launch of SBM 2.0, 5.54 lakh villages and 3913 cities have been declared ODF+, implying that these villages and cities also have liquid waste management facilities.

In fact, SBM 2.0 aims to clear 2400 legacy landfills by 2025-26. So far, only 30 per cent of the target has been achieved, and only 41 per cent of waste remediation has been achieved. The SBM (Urban) dashboard shows that 91 per cent of the municipal wards have a door-to-door waste collection system, while waste segregation at the source system is active in 90 per cent of the wards.

Not only this, but a recent study has also found a link between reduced infant mortality rate and SBM. It has been estimated that the mission would have saved the lives of 60,000 to 70,000 infants from 2014 to 2020. This is based on the World Bank's estimation in 2018. "Unsafe sanitation caused an estimated 199 million cases of diarrhoea annually before the start of the SBM in 2014. These have been gradually reducing, and will almost be eliminated when universal use of safe sanitation facilities is achieved by October 2019," the report said.

However, a 2020 audit report by the Comptroller and Auditor General has serious concerns over the data that has been reported under SBM. Not only this, but people in several regions did not even use toilets. In many cases, the construction was substandard, and several schools and Anganwadi had no toilets. Despite this, states were declared ODF. In other words, there were huge discrepancies between what was reported in government reports and the actual situation on the ground.

The government had allocated Rs 1.96 lakh crore for SBM for both urban and rural components. However, the report suggests that the money was not effectively utilised nor sanctioned promptly to achieve the targets. The CAG report also cited cases of incomplete projects and unused allocations due to bottlenecks at the bureaucratic level. These inefficiencies highlighted gaps in monitoring and execution, underscoring the challenge of translating funds into sustainable infrastructure and impact.

Besides, the mission was based on the hypothesis that access to toilets will lead to ODF India. However, surveys conducted by several organisations pointed out that many toilets built under SBM were either unused or abandoned. A 2019 study indicated that nearly 23 per cent of households in rural India with newly constructed toilets still preferred open defecation due to poor construction quality, lack of water supply, and deep-rooted social practices. Several reports pointed out that toilets were used to store food grains and other purposes.

In other words, toilet construction certainly did not lead to behavioural changes. Not only this but the long-term sustainability of the toilets was not taken into account at the time of programme design. Constructing toilets was just the first step; ensuring they remained usable requires continuous maintenance and water supply.

Reports from states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh pointed to abandoned or poorly maintained facilities as a significant setback to the mission. The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched later on to address water availability issues, attempted to bridge this gap but came years after SBM's rollout, leaving many initial projects to deteriorate due to neglect.

Moreover, SBM's implementation did not adequately incorporate strategies for funding ongoing maintenance. Local bodies often lacked the financial autonomy or technical knowledge to maintain infrastructure, leading to reliance on external support that was inconsistent at best.

As far as SBM 2.0 is concerned, it is way short of achieving its goal if government data is to be believed. With the speed at which work is progressing and approvals are being sanctioned, it is unlikely that the government will be able to achieve its mission of clearing 2400 legacy landfills. The 2022 Central Pollution Control Board report showed that India generated nearly 170,000 metric tons of solid waste daily, with only about 54 per cent processed sustainably. The lack of robust systems for waste segregation and the proliferation of landfill sites have contributed to environmental hazards, including air and water pollution.

Recycling rates remained low, with most waste ending up in unsanitary landfills that strain urban ecosystems. These shortcomings expose the inadequacy of SBM's approach in tackling comprehensive urban sanitation and waste management.

Not only this, people in metro cities like Delhi and Mumbai, struggle to get clean air. At the time of writing, Delhi had an AQI of 426. One can imagine the kind of life people in cities like Delhi have.

SBM 2.0 promised enhanced financial monitoring and an emphasis on sustainability. However, experts argue that a shift toward grassroots empowerment, community ownership and behavioural change is indispensable for achieving this humongous mission.

Greater transparency in fund utilisation, periodic audits, and incentivised training for local officials can pave the way for more resilient outcomes. Moreover, integrating SBM efforts with broader social welfare schemes could ensure a holistic approach, combining hygiene, water access, education, and health.

While the mission undeniably brought attention to sanitation issues and mobilised resources, the approach often prioritised quick wins over achieving comprehensive and sustainable solutions. True progress will require acknowledging these and working towards providing equitable access and fostering deep-rooted cultural and behavioural shifts.